What Is Realism International Relations: Essential Guide

Realism in international relations is a theory that views states as the primary actors, driven by self-interest and the pursuit of power in an anarchic global system. It emphasizes competition and the balance of power as key to international stability, believing that cooperation is limited and often temporary.

Navigating the world of international relations can sometimes feel like trying to decipher a complex map. Many students and aspiring professionals find themselves puzzled by the different lenses through which we can view global affairs. One of the most foundational and frequently discussed is realism. If you’ve ever felt a bit lost trying to understand why states behave the way they do on the world stage, you’re not alone. This guide is designed to make the concept of realism in international relations clear and accessible. We’ll break down its core ideas, explore its different flavors, and see how it helps us understand the intricate dance of global politics.

Understanding Realism: The Foundation of Power Politics

At its heart, realism in international relations is a way of looking at the world that focuses on states and their inherent desire for power. Think of it like this: in a world without a single, overarching authority (like a global government), each state must look out for itself. This is what scholars call an “anarchic” international system. Because there’s no ultimate referee, states have to rely on their own strength and strategic maneuvering to survive and thrive.

Realists believe that the primary goal of every state is to ensure its own security and survival. To do this, states constantly seek to increase their power, whether it’s military might, economic strength, or diplomatic influence. This pursuit of power isn’t necessarily because leaders are inherently aggressive, but because they operate under the assumption that other states are also pursuing power and could pose a threat.

Key Tenets of Realism

To truly grasp what realism is all about, it’s helpful to break down its core assumptions. These are the building blocks that shape how realists analyze international events:

• Statism: Realism places states at the center of international relations. Non-state actors, like international organizations or terrorist groups, are seen as secondary or their influence is understood through how states interact with them.
• Survival: The ultimate goal of any state is to survive. This means protecting its territory, its people, and its way of life from external threats. All other state goals, like economic prosperity or ideological spread, are secondary to survival.
• Self-Help: Because the international system is anarchic, states cannot rely on others for their security. They must provide for their own defense and well-being. This leads to a constant need to build up capabilities.
• Power Politics: Power is the currency of international relations. States use power to achieve their objectives, influence other states, and ensure their survival. The distribution of power among states is a crucial factor in understanding international behavior and stability.
• National Interest: States act based on their perceived national interest, which is primarily defined in terms of power and security. Morality and international law are often seen as secondary to these fundamental interests.

These tenets create a framework for understanding why states might engage in conflict, form alliances, or pursue specific foreign policies. It’s a pragmatic, often sober, view of how the world works.

The Roots of Realism: A Historical Perspective

Realism isn’t a new idea; it’s a perspective that has been debated and refined over centuries. Understanding its origins helps us appreciate its enduring relevance.

Classical Realism: The Human Nature Argument

One of the earliest forms of realist thought comes from thinkers like Thucydides, an ancient Greek historian who chronicled the Peloponnesian War. He observed that “the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must.” This highlights a fundamental power imbalance and the inevitability of conflict when interests clash.

Later, Niccolò Machiavelli, in his book The Prince, advised rulers to be pragmatic and, if necessary, ruthless to maintain power and ensure the state’s survival. He separated politics from morality, arguing that a leader must sometimes act immorally for the good of the state.

The most prominent figure in classical realism is Hans Morgenthau. In his seminal work, Politics Among Nations, Morgenthau argued that international politics is governed by objective laws that have their roots in human nature. He believed that humans have an inherent desire for power, a concept he called the “will to power,” which translates into the state’s drive for more power. For Morgenthau, the pursuit of power and the fear of others seeking power create a perpetual struggle in international relations.

Structural Realism (Neorealism): The System Matters

In the latter half of the 20th century, Kenneth Waltz introduced a significant evolution to realist thought with his book Theory of International Politics. Waltz shifted the focus from human nature to the structure of the international system itself. He argued that the primary driver of state behavior is not human nature, but the anarchic structure of the international system. Because the system is anarchic and states are functionally similar (all seeking to survive), they are forced to compete and prioritize power to ensure their security.

Waltz’s theory is known as structural realism or neorealism. He identified two main types of structural realists:

• Defensive Realism: This branch, championed by Waltz himself, suggests that states are primarily concerned with security. They will seek to acquire enough power to be secure, but not so much that it provokes other states to form balancing coalitions against them. Excessive power-seeking can be dangerous.
• Offensive Realism: Developed by John Mearsheimer, this perspective argues that states are power maximizers. In an anarchic system, the best way to ensure survival is to become the most powerful actor, ideally achieving hegemony (dominance) over the entire international system. States should constantly seek to increase their relative power.

This distinction is crucial: defensive realists see the international system as relatively stable, with states seeking to maintain the status quo, while offensive realists see a more dynamic and conflict-prone system where states are always striving for greater power.

How Realism Explains World Events

Realism provides a powerful lens for understanding many historical and contemporary international events. Let’s look at a few examples:

The Cold War

The Cold War (roughly 1947-1991) between the United States and the Soviet Union is a classic example explained through a realist framework. Both superpowers were driven by a desire to enhance their security and expand their influence in an anarchic world. They engaged in an arms race, built vast military alliances (NATO and the Warsaw Pact), and competed for dominance in various regions. Realists would argue that the “balance of power” – the bipolar structure of the world with two dominant states – largely prevented direct, large-scale war between the two superpowers, even as they fought proxy wars.

The Balance of Power

The concept of the “balance of power” is central to realism. It refers to the idea that states will act to prevent any single state from becoming too powerful and dominating the international system. They might do this by forming alliances with other states to counter the rising power. For instance, historical examples include the alliances formed against Napoleon in the early 19th century or the shifting alliances during World War I and II.

Arms Races

When one state increases its military spending or develops new weapons, other states often feel compelled to do the same to maintain their security. This can lead to an “arms race.” Realists see this as a natural consequence of the security dilemma – a situation where actions taken by one state to increase its own security (like building up its military) are perceived as threatening by other states, leading them to increase their own security measures, which in turn makes the first state feel less secure.

Alliances

Realists view alliances as temporary and strategic arrangements driven by national interest, not by shared values or ideology. States ally with others to balance against a common threat or to increase their own power. However, as circumstances change, alliances can dissolve. The shifting relationships between countries throughout history, often forming and breaking partnerships based on perceived threats and opportunities, align with this realist perspective.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Realism

Like any theory, realism has its advantages and disadvantages. Understanding these helps us appreciate its utility and limitations.

Strengths

• Explanatory Power: Realism is highly effective at explaining recurring patterns in international politics, such as conflict, competition, and the formation of alliances based on power.
• Focus on Statecraft: It provides practical insights for policymakers by emphasizing the importance of national interest, power, and security in decision-making.
• Parsimony: It offers a relatively simple and straightforward way to understand a complex world, focusing on a few core assumptions.
• Historical Resonance: Its ideas have deep roots in history and have been observed in state behavior across different eras and regions.

Weaknesses

• Neglect of Non-State Actors: Realism’s focus on states can lead it to overlook or downplay the influence of international organizations, multinational corporations, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in shaping global events.
• Underestimation of Cooperation: Critics argue that realism is too pessimistic about the possibilities for cooperation among states, often driven by shared interests in areas like trade, environmental protection, or global health.
• Limited Explanation for Change: It can struggle to explain significant transformations in the international system, such as the end of the Cold War or the rise of international law and norms.
• Moral and Ethical Blind Spots: By prioritizing national interest and power, realism can sometimes justify actions that might be considered unethical or harmful from a humanitarian perspective.
• The Security Dilemma: While it identifies the security dilemma, it doesn’t always offer solutions for overcoming it, potentially perpetuating cycles of mistrust and conflict.

It’s important to remember that realism is one of many theories used to understand international relations. Other theories, like liberalism, constructivism, and Marxism, offer different perspectives that can complement or challenge realist explanations.

Realism in Practice: Careers and Policy

For those interested in careers in international relations, diplomacy, or global policy, understanding realism is not just academic; it’s practical. Policymakers in foreign ministries, intelligence agencies, and international organizations often operate with a realist mindset, even if they don’t explicitly use the term.

Foreign Policy Decision-Making

When a country decides to increase its military budget, form a security alliance, or engage in military intervention, these decisions are often rooted in realist calculations about national interest, power, and security threats. For example, a country might join an alliance not because it shares the same values as its partners, but because it sees the alliance as the most effective way to deter potential adversaries.

International Diplomacy

Diplomats constantly engage in negotiations and manage relationships between states. A realist perspective helps them understand the underlying motivations of other states – their pursuit of power and security – which can inform their negotiation strategies. They recognize that agreements are often based on a balance of interests and power, and that these agreements can be fragile if the underlying power dynamics shift.

Career Paths

If you’re looking to build a career in this field, understanding realist assumptions can be incredibly valuable:

• Government Service: Working in foreign service, defense departments, or intelligence agencies requires an understanding of power dynamics and national interests.
• International Organizations: While some organizations focus on cooperation, understanding how states prioritize their national interests within these bodies is crucial for effectiveness.
• Think Tanks and Academia: Researching and analyzing global events often involves applying theoretical frameworks like realism to understand state behavior.
• NGOs: Even in humanitarian or development work, understanding the geopolitical context shaped by realist power politics can help organizations navigate challenging environments.

For students and professionals, grasping realism helps you interpret the news, understand the rationale behind state actions, and develop your own strategic thinking about global challenges.

Frequently Asked Questions about Realism in International Relations

Here are some common questions beginners have about realism:

Conclusion

Realism offers a compelling and enduring perspective on international relations, grounded in the fundamental realities of power, security, and self-interest in an anarchic world. From the ancient observations of Thucydides to the structural analyses of Kenneth Waltz, this school of thought provides essential tools for understanding why states behave the way they do on the global stage. While it may present a more sober view of international politics, its insights are invaluable for anyone seeking to grasp the dynamics of world affairs, navigate a career in global policy, or simply make sense of the news.

By understanding the core tenets of statism, survival, self-help, and power politics, you gain a clearer picture of the motivations behind state actions. Whether you’re a student beginning your journey in international relations or a professional looking to deepen your understanding, embracing realism as one of the key theoretical lenses will undoubtedly equip you with greater confidence and clarity as you engage with the complex and fascinating world of global affairs. Remember, knowledge is your greatest asset in this field, and understanding realism is a vital step forward.